Week 8 Lecture 2 (2/24/11):
After the Sasanians took over Jerusalem and Palestine, Jews were once again allowed to resettle in Jerusalem, however, they were still continously persecuted. Two primary factions in Islam formed: the Sunnis and Shiites. The faction of Ali, or Shi'ites, believes in a kinship-based caliphate. The faction of Mu'awiya is tradition-based and are now known as the Sunnis. Even today, there are huge conflicts between these two factions, and they are responsible for most of the tragedy and death occuring in the Middle East. I am not a follower or an expert in Islam, but to have two sects who worship the same God and commit to the same rituals in conflict is very unreasonable. There may be more underlying issues that I am unaware of, but the only difference I see is that one is kinship-based and one is tradition-based. To impose death and torture those who do not follow "your" religion should be a resolved issue in the current century; buf this corruption still continues and it is very disappointing.
During the early rise of Islam, there was a shift from Jerusalem to Mecca. People prayed toward Mecca to the Kaaba, a cube of black stone believing to date to the time of Adam of Eve and to be a portal to the upper realm. However, Umar and the rest of the Umayyad Empire wanted to divert this adoration toward Jerusalem. Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock, and Caliph Walid built the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount. The traditions of the Temple Mount became associated with Islam, in that it was the location of the sacrifiec of Ishmael, the place of Muhammad's night journey, the portal to the underworld, and the spot of final judgment. All of these myths became associated with the Temple Mount, making Jerusalem a significant city of Islamic faith. However, it is currently the third most important Islamic city, after Mecca and Medina.
Friday, February 25, 2011
Tuesday, February 22, 2011
Christian Jerusalem
Week 8 Lecture 1 (2/22/11)
After the Jews were banned from Jerusalem, the city no longer was a center of religious activity. However, during the Byzantine Empire, the rise of Christianity made Jerusalem a focal point in religion once again. Over 300 years before Constantine, miraculous events were happening in Jerusalem. A man named Jesus claimed to be the Messiah. He preached about a religion based on faith, not a Temple, and one of love and passivity. Jerusalem was said to be the place where Jesus died, was buried, and rose from the dead, and these events became essential to the Christian faith.
In 312, Constantine got rid of the tetrarchy and declared himself emperor of all of the the Roman Empire. After the Battle of the Milvian Bridge where he believed he saw a sign from God, Constantine became a Christian. He made Christianity legal, and Christianity became the main religion of Rome. Christians were no longer persecuted for their religion, but they did have to interpret Christianity the way the emperor did. Therefore, many scholars can argue whether Constantine's contributions to Christianity were great or destructive. He played a large role in promoting the religion, but he also changed it so it was no longer the religion Jesus preached, one of passivity and spirituality. Constantine's mother also contributed to the Christian pilgrimages we practice today. Jerusalem, and specifically the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, became the new axis mundi. Myths that were once associated with the Temple Mount were transferred to the Church of the Holy Sepulchur, and the Nea Church was build to replace Solomon's Temple.
After the Jews were banned from Jerusalem, the city no longer was a center of religious activity. However, during the Byzantine Empire, the rise of Christianity made Jerusalem a focal point in religion once again. Over 300 years before Constantine, miraculous events were happening in Jerusalem. A man named Jesus claimed to be the Messiah. He preached about a religion based on faith, not a Temple, and one of love and passivity. Jerusalem was said to be the place where Jesus died, was buried, and rose from the dead, and these events became essential to the Christian faith.
In 312, Constantine got rid of the tetrarchy and declared himself emperor of all of the the Roman Empire. After the Battle of the Milvian Bridge where he believed he saw a sign from God, Constantine became a Christian. He made Christianity legal, and Christianity became the main religion of Rome. Christians were no longer persecuted for their religion, but they did have to interpret Christianity the way the emperor did. Therefore, many scholars can argue whether Constantine's contributions to Christianity were great or destructive. He played a large role in promoting the religion, but he also changed it so it was no longer the religion Jesus preached, one of passivity and spirituality. Constantine's mother also contributed to the Christian pilgrimages we practice today. Jerusalem, and specifically the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, became the new axis mundi. Myths that were once associated with the Temple Mount were transferred to the Church of the Holy Sepulchur, and the Nea Church was build to replace Solomon's Temple.
Friday, February 18, 2011
Jerusalem in Revolt
After Herod died in 4 BCE, three of his sons took over the throne. They were very ineffective rulers, so the Roman emperor eventually replaced them with Roman procurators, one being Pontius Pilate. Pontius Pilate ruled from 26-37 CE and is know for presiding over the trial of Jesus. An ineffective leader as well, he always provoked the Jews and was eventually also recalled and replaced. With the rise of Jewish nationalism and growing conflicts among the Jews and Romans, the stage was set for the Great Revolt of 66 CE to begin. However, this revolt was soon put out by Vespasian, the future emperor of the Romans. In 70 CE, on the 9th of Ab, the Temple was destroyed again and cognitive dissonance filled the Jews. In addition, Vespasian instituted a temple tax on only Jews, giving them further incentive to renounce their religion.
After years of oppression and humiliation by the Romans, the Jews began another revolt, called the Bar Kokhba Revolt. As propaganda, Bar Kokhba minted coins, usually an overstrike of Roman coins, but with many misspellings. He also wrote letters in Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek to promote Jerusalem and the idea that he was the prince, or the Nsy. As a consequence, the Jews were bloodily punished by Hadrian. He banned circumcision, rebuilt Judea into Aelia Capitolina, and renamed the temple the Temple of Jupiter. This marked the end of Jerusalem for a long time, until 330 CE. However, from archaeological remains, there was a noticeable rise in local synagogues. The main question about these structures is whether they were built before or after the destruction of the Temple. Synagogues show the transformation of Jewish tradition from blood sacrifice to interpretation of the Torah, and that Jews no longer needed the one Temple in Jerusalem to practice their faith.
After years of oppression and humiliation by the Romans, the Jews began another revolt, called the Bar Kokhba Revolt. As propaganda, Bar Kokhba minted coins, usually an overstrike of Roman coins, but with many misspellings. He also wrote letters in Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek to promote Jerusalem and the idea that he was the prince, or the Nsy. As a consequence, the Jews were bloodily punished by Hadrian. He banned circumcision, rebuilt Judea into Aelia Capitolina, and renamed the temple the Temple of Jupiter. This marked the end of Jerusalem for a long time, until 330 CE. However, from archaeological remains, there was a noticeable rise in local synagogues. The main question about these structures is whether they were built before or after the destruction of the Temple. Synagogues show the transformation of Jewish tradition from blood sacrifice to interpretation of the Torah, and that Jews no longer needed the one Temple in Jerusalem to practice their faith.
Tuesday, February 15, 2011
Herodian Jerusalem
Week 7 Lecture 1 (2/15/11):
The Hasmoneans were defeated by Pompey in 63 BCE, leading Jerusalem into another period known today as Herodian Jerusalem. King Herod was an Idumean, who was forcibly converted to Judaism by the Hasmoneans. The Romans decided to put Herod's family in charge of the provinces, believing that they will be more favorable toward the Romans, who stopped the forced conversion imposed by the Hasmoneans. Throughout his reign, Herod remained true to the Romans by collecting taxes and erecting buildings in their name. However, he was also sensitive to the Jews. He minted coins without any graven images, allowed the people to select their own High Priest, was very generous during times of famine, and ordered many construction projects that employed Jews. Some people continue to regard him as a horrible king because of his cynical and impulsive mentality, but he unquestionably did help Jerusalem expand and flourish.
Toward the end of Herod's reign, Jesus Christ was born. There is no archaeological evidence that Jesus did exist; however, it is a general consensus among scholars today that there was a Jesus Christ. The debatable question is whether or not he was the son of God. Without archaeological proof, there can be no answer to this question. There have been some discoveries that might support the stories in the Bible. A boat was found in Ginosaur on the Sea of Galilae, which could have been the boat that Jesus and his disciples rode in. However, this can never be proven as well. Until concrete evidence can be found, the existence and divinity of Jesus Christ is up to one's faith.
The Hasmoneans were defeated by Pompey in 63 BCE, leading Jerusalem into another period known today as Herodian Jerusalem. King Herod was an Idumean, who was forcibly converted to Judaism by the Hasmoneans. The Romans decided to put Herod's family in charge of the provinces, believing that they will be more favorable toward the Romans, who stopped the forced conversion imposed by the Hasmoneans. Throughout his reign, Herod remained true to the Romans by collecting taxes and erecting buildings in their name. However, he was also sensitive to the Jews. He minted coins without any graven images, allowed the people to select their own High Priest, was very generous during times of famine, and ordered many construction projects that employed Jews. Some people continue to regard him as a horrible king because of his cynical and impulsive mentality, but he unquestionably did help Jerusalem expand and flourish.
Toward the end of Herod's reign, Jesus Christ was born. There is no archaeological evidence that Jesus did exist; however, it is a general consensus among scholars today that there was a Jesus Christ. The debatable question is whether or not he was the son of God. Without archaeological proof, there can be no answer to this question. There have been some discoveries that might support the stories in the Bible. A boat was found in Ginosaur on the Sea of Galilae, which could have been the boat that Jesus and his disciples rode in. However, this can never be proven as well. Until concrete evidence can be found, the existence and divinity of Jesus Christ is up to one's faith.
Friday, February 11, 2011
The Hellenization of Jerusalem and Its Effects
Week 6 Lecture 2 (2/10/11):
After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BCE, his enormous kingdom became divided, two of them being the Ptolemies and Seleicides. The Ptolemies conquered Jerusalem, also known as Palestine during the time, in 320 BCE and ruled for about 100 years. Under the Ptolemies, the Jews were not allowed to elect a king, but they still were able to choose a high priest of their own. In 201 BCE, the Seleicides conquered the Ptolemies and immediately began aggressively trying to Hellenize the Jews. Greek traditions such as going to the gym in the nude and going to theaters were imposed onto the Jews forcibly. Antiochus III's attempt to Hellenize the Jews was very successful. We see archaeological evidence in the Tomb of Absolom, a Jewish burial with inscriptions written in Greek, and in the Sepphoris Mosaic, found in the dining room of a Jewish House. The Bible was also translated into Greek, and Greek became the most spoken language in the city. These proofs show that Greek traditions, religion, literature, and many other aspects were well incorporated into Jerusalem.
While some people adapted to this forced conversion very well, conservative Jews did not. This sparked the Maccabean Revolt led by Judas Maccabaeus. In about 165 BCE, these revolts resulted in the Jews regaining control of Jerusalem and of the Temple. The holiday of Hanakkah was then established to commemorate the Jew's triumph in gaining self-rule. However, conditions soon changed when the Hasmonean leaders became corrupt and secular. The kings claimed the high priesthood for themselves, were insensitive to their fellow Jews, executed and forcibly converted foreigners, and expanded the territory for political purposes. This appears to be a very hypocritical situation because the Hasmineans were doing unto others what they had revolted against. Although Jerusalem was ruled under a tyranny, the city grew greatly in size and population, becoming a center of commerce and religion. Hasmonean Jerusalem lasted only until 63 BCE, when Pompey from the Roman Empire took control of Jerusalem.
After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BCE, his enormous kingdom became divided, two of them being the Ptolemies and Seleicides. The Ptolemies conquered Jerusalem, also known as Palestine during the time, in 320 BCE and ruled for about 100 years. Under the Ptolemies, the Jews were not allowed to elect a king, but they still were able to choose a high priest of their own. In 201 BCE, the Seleicides conquered the Ptolemies and immediately began aggressively trying to Hellenize the Jews. Greek traditions such as going to the gym in the nude and going to theaters were imposed onto the Jews forcibly. Antiochus III's attempt to Hellenize the Jews was very successful. We see archaeological evidence in the Tomb of Absolom, a Jewish burial with inscriptions written in Greek, and in the Sepphoris Mosaic, found in the dining room of a Jewish House. The Bible was also translated into Greek, and Greek became the most spoken language in the city. These proofs show that Greek traditions, religion, literature, and many other aspects were well incorporated into Jerusalem.
While some people adapted to this forced conversion very well, conservative Jews did not. This sparked the Maccabean Revolt led by Judas Maccabaeus. In about 165 BCE, these revolts resulted in the Jews regaining control of Jerusalem and of the Temple. The holiday of Hanakkah was then established to commemorate the Jew's triumph in gaining self-rule. However, conditions soon changed when the Hasmonean leaders became corrupt and secular. The kings claimed the high priesthood for themselves, were insensitive to their fellow Jews, executed and forcibly converted foreigners, and expanded the territory for political purposes. This appears to be a very hypocritical situation because the Hasmineans were doing unto others what they had revolted against. Although Jerusalem was ruled under a tyranny, the city grew greatly in size and population, becoming a center of commerce and religion. Hasmonean Jerusalem lasted only until 63 BCE, when Pompey from the Roman Empire took control of Jerusalem.
Tuesday, February 8, 2011
Post-Exilic Jerusalem
Week 6 Lecture 1 (2/8/11)
The Second Temple Period of Jerusalem began when the Achaemenid Persians conquered the Babylonians in 539 BCE. King Cyrus, the king of Persia, arranged for the Jews in Babylon to return back to their homelands and rebuild their fallen temple. This was a political and diplomatic tactic that allowed King Cyrus to gain favor and rid opposition in conquered territories. His strategy worked out very well because soon after, King Cyrus was deemed a "Liberator" and also a "Messiah" among the Jews. In Isaiah 34-35, the Bible refers to Cyrus as the "anointed one" who carried out God's will unknowingly. This "liberating" gesture by the Persians had a tremendous effect on the traditions and beliefs of the returning Jews.
Living in Judah during the time of the exile were the Samaritans, who believed that a temple does not need to be present in order to worship God. The Samaritans adapted to the destruction of the temple and practiced their faith through worship, song, interpreting the Torah, and upholding religious holidays and traditions. When the exiled Jews returned to Jerusalem with commands to reconstruct the temple, conflict arose. Construction workers needed to carry a weapon while holding their building tools (Nehemiah 4: 6-23). Even though the temple was finally completed, it "paled in comparison" to the original temple built under Solomon. The high tax rates and the recurring conflicts between the Jews and the Samaritans made Jerusalem an area of unrest and confusion.
The Second Temple Period of Jerusalem began when the Achaemenid Persians conquered the Babylonians in 539 BCE. King Cyrus, the king of Persia, arranged for the Jews in Babylon to return back to their homelands and rebuild their fallen temple. This was a political and diplomatic tactic that allowed King Cyrus to gain favor and rid opposition in conquered territories. His strategy worked out very well because soon after, King Cyrus was deemed a "Liberator" and also a "Messiah" among the Jews. In Isaiah 34-35, the Bible refers to Cyrus as the "anointed one" who carried out God's will unknowingly. This "liberating" gesture by the Persians had a tremendous effect on the traditions and beliefs of the returning Jews.
Living in Judah during the time of the exile were the Samaritans, who believed that a temple does not need to be present in order to worship God. The Samaritans adapted to the destruction of the temple and practiced their faith through worship, song, interpreting the Torah, and upholding religious holidays and traditions. When the exiled Jews returned to Jerusalem with commands to reconstruct the temple, conflict arose. Construction workers needed to carry a weapon while holding their building tools (Nehemiah 4: 6-23). Even though the temple was finally completed, it "paled in comparison" to the original temple built under Solomon. The high tax rates and the recurring conflicts between the Jews and the Samaritans made Jerusalem an area of unrest and confusion.
Tuesday, February 1, 2011
Cognitive Dissonance in Jerusalem
Week 5 Lecture 1 (2/1/11):
Texts and books become an important part of Jerusalem as it approached the 5th century BCE. Not only these texts provide sources for scholars to analyze and interpret the history of Jerusalem, but during the time, it served as the law. Written law became more powerful then kings, because when kings died off, written texts remained. Many people, even the common folk, became more literate, and the myths and stories of the Bible became very widespread. This caused many people to follow the faith, but also to question the authenticity of the Bible when the fall of Jerusalem came in 586 BCE.
When the Babylonian Empire came into power, Jerusalem became exiled. During the first exile, nobles were sent away and lived off allowances provided by the Babylonians, while the poorest of the poor remained in Judah to cultivate the land. During the second exile, the king of Babylon, Nubuchadnezzar, destroyed the great temple and sent many fleeing to Egypt. During the third and final exile, Jerusalem was completely destroyed. After this tragedy, many people were in a state of shock, confusion, and disbelief. How could God let all this happen? Instead of leaving the faith, many chose to reinterpret the Bible. The Promise to David was reconsidered as a conditionalized promise, where David had to fulfill his bargain, but did not. The Temple where God was believed to live became a temple that only housed the name of God. Here, we see the emergence of Name Theology, in that God is present in all things but lives in heaven. These rationales and "excuses" did not help ease the cognitive dissonance in Jerusalem, where the events happening in their reality contradicted their faith directly.
Texts and books become an important part of Jerusalem as it approached the 5th century BCE. Not only these texts provide sources for scholars to analyze and interpret the history of Jerusalem, but during the time, it served as the law. Written law became more powerful then kings, because when kings died off, written texts remained. Many people, even the common folk, became more literate, and the myths and stories of the Bible became very widespread. This caused many people to follow the faith, but also to question the authenticity of the Bible when the fall of Jerusalem came in 586 BCE.
When the Babylonian Empire came into power, Jerusalem became exiled. During the first exile, nobles were sent away and lived off allowances provided by the Babylonians, while the poorest of the poor remained in Judah to cultivate the land. During the second exile, the king of Babylon, Nubuchadnezzar, destroyed the great temple and sent many fleeing to Egypt. During the third and final exile, Jerusalem was completely destroyed. After this tragedy, many people were in a state of shock, confusion, and disbelief. How could God let all this happen? Instead of leaving the faith, many chose to reinterpret the Bible. The Promise to David was reconsidered as a conditionalized promise, where David had to fulfill his bargain, but did not. The Temple where God was believed to live became a temple that only housed the name of God. Here, we see the emergence of Name Theology, in that God is present in all things but lives in heaven. These rationales and "excuses" did not help ease the cognitive dissonance in Jerusalem, where the events happening in their reality contradicted their faith directly.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)